2
As requested in paragraph 5 of General Assembly resolution 48/166 of 21
December 1993, I will present my conclusions and recommendations on an agenda
for development during the forty-ninth session of the Assembly, taking into
account the debate at the substantive session of 1994 of the Economic and Social
Council, as well as the views expressed during the discussions to be promoted by
the President of the General Assembly. I. Introduction: why an Agenda for
Development?
3
Development is a fundamental human right. Development is the most secure
basis for peace.
4
Taking stock of these principles, and in keeping with my strong personal
commitment to development and the recognized needs of the United Nations at this
point in history, the idea of an agenda for development took shape.
5
The concept of development, and decades of effort to reduce poverty,
illiteracy, disease and mortality rates, are great achievements of this century.
But development as a common cause is in danger of fading from the forefront of
our agenda. The competition for influence during the cold war stimulated
interest in development. The motives were not always altruistic, but countries
seeking to develop could benefit from that interest. Today, the competition to
bring development to the poorest countries has ended. Many donors have grown
weary of the task. Many of the poor are dispirited. Development is in crisis.
6
The poorest nations fall farther behind. Nations in transition from
command to open economies face immense hardships. Nations that have achieved
prosperity see their success accompanied by a new array of problems, social,
environmental, cultural and economic, and many are consequently reluctant even
to pursue their assistance policies at former levels.
7
The current situation calls for wider intellectual understanding, deeper
moral commitment and more effective policy measures. Without them, a half
century of considerable progress could be undermined. Worse, all peoples of the
world will live on a deteriorating planet, and will increasingly lose the
ability to shape their destiny in a coherent way.
8
Specific suggestions and detailed proposals for development have been
produced in great quantity and are deserving of serious study. The United
Nations system has produced a wealth of studies and reports on various aspects
of development; they are an invaluable resource.
9
Building upon these efforts, the present report seeks to revitalize the
vision of development and to stimulate an intensified discussion of all its
aspects.
10
The Charter of the United Nations makes possible a maturing elaboration
of the crucial idea of development, but it has been left to us in the last
decades of the twentieth century to try to bring the concept of development to
fulfilment.
11
Concerns have been expressed that the United Nations puts greater
emphasis on peace-keeping than on issues of development. These fears are not
borne out by the regular budgets or the numbers of staff members engaged in
peace and in development. Yet with growing requests for funds for peace-keeping,
some Member States find it difficult to increase their contributions to the
developmental activities of the United Nations. Without development, however,
there is no prospect for lasting peace.
12
While national Governments bear the major responsibility for
development, the United Nations has been entrusted with important mandates for
assisting in this task. The involvement of the United Nations in development
spans five development decades and encompasses the full range of global problems
of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian character. It operates in all
categories and at every level of development.
13
This agenda, therefore, is grounded in unique United Nations
experience. Section II sets forth the five major and interlinked dimensions of
development. Section III notes the multiplicity of actors in development and the
process by which the United Nations can help to link these actors to the
different dimensions of development. Annex I to the present report shows the
scale of the United Nations involvement in development. In discussing the
involvement of the United Nations in development, I have primarily limited
myself to the United Nations itself, including its funds and programmes. The
work of the specialized agencies of the United Nations system, essential as it
is, is not the focus of the present document.
14
In the light of the new vision of development that is emerging, an
alternative to the United Nations in development simply does not exist. The
United Nations is a forum where the voices of all States, great and small, can
be heard with equal clarity, and where non-State actors can make their views
known to the widest audience. There is still time to move forward together, but
greater urgency is necessary. With each passing day's delay, the work grows more
costly and difficult.
15
While there is war, no State is securely at peace. While there is want,
no people can achieve lasting development.
17
Development cannot proceed easily in societies where military concerns
are at or near the centre of life. Societies whose economic effort is given in
substantial part to military production inevitably diminish the prospects of
their people for development. The absence of peace often leads societies to
devote a higher percentage of their budget to the military than to development
needs in health, education and housing. Preparation for war absorbs inordinate
resources and impedes the development of social institutions.
18
The lack of development contributes to international tension and to a
perceived need for military power. This in turn heightens tensions. Societies
caught in this cycle find it difficult to avoid involvement in confrontation,
conflict or all-out warfare.
19
While in some nations service in the military is the most reliable path
to an education and to the acquisition of job skills for civilian life, there
are also cases in which military production may disseminate advanced
technologies of eventual use for civilian purposes. But national budgets which
focus directly on development better serve the cause of peace and human
security.
20
Situations of conflict require a development strategy different from
that obtaining under peaceful conditions. The characteristics of development
will differ according to the nature of the situation. Development in the context
of international war does not involve the same problems as development during
guerrilla warfare, or development when governmental institutions are under
military control.
21
Although development activities yield their best results in conditions
of peace, they should start prior to the end of hostilities. Emergency relief
and development should not be regarded as alternatives; one provides a starting
point and a foundation for the other. Relief requirements must be met in a way
which, from the outset, provides a foundation for lasting development. Camps for
refugees and displaced persons must be more than mere holding grounds for
victims. Vaccination campaigns, literacy drives and special attention to the
conditions of women are important at these times. All can lay the groundwork for
community development even while emergency relief is being provided.
Capacity-building steps should not await the formal termination of hostilities,
but must begin to be performed alongside urgent wartime services. Conflict,
terrible as it is, can provide opportunities for major reform and its
consolidation. The ideals of democracy, respect for human rights and measures
for social justice can begin to take form at this stage.
22
Peace-building means action to identify and support structures which
will tend to strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into
conflict. As preventive diplomacy aims to prevent the outbreak of a conflict,
peace-building starts during the course of a conflict to prevent its recurrence.
Only sustained, cooperative work on the underlying economic, social, cultural
and humanitarian problems can place an achieved peace on a durable foundation.
Unless there is reconstruction and development in the aftermath of conflict,
there can be little expectation that peace will endure.
23
Peace-building is a matter for countries at all stages of development.
For countries emerging from conflict, peace-building offers the chance to
establish new institutions, social, political and judicial, that can give
impetus to development. Land reform and other measures of social justice can be
undertaken. Countries in transition can use peace-building measures as a chance
to put their national systems on the path of sustainable development. Countries
high on the scale of wealth and power must hasten the process of partial
demobilization and defence conversion. Decisions made at this stage can have an
immense impact on the course of their societies and the international community
for future generations.
24
The most immediate task for peace-building is to alleviate the effects
of war on the population. Food aid, support for health and hygiene systems, the
clearance of mines and logistical support to essential organizations in the
field represent the first peace-building task.
25
At this stage too, it is essential that efforts to address immediate
needs are undertaken in ways that promote, rather than compromise, long-term
development objectives. As food is provided there must be concentration on
restoring food production capacities. In conjunction with the delivery of relief
supplies, attention should be given to road construction, restoration and
improvement of port facilities and establishment of regional stocks and
distribution centres.
26
Mine clearance is a unique post-conflict undertaking. The world is
awakening to the reality that the proliferation of land-mines poses a major
obstacle to development and must be halted. Because they remain in the ground
long after hostilities have ended, killing and maiming indiscriminately, mines
effectively prevent the use of large tracts of land, while imposing a huge
burden on families and the health infrastructures of post-conflict countries. In
many cases, the removal of land-mines and unexploded ordnance is a prerequisite
for all other post-conflict peace-building activities. Techniques applicable
under conditions prevalent in most countries are slow and painstaking. Mine
clearance has to be conducted for a great many years and therefore must be
managed and undertaken by nationals. Capacity needs to be established to
undertake, monitor and assess mine clearance and to maintain national standards
in accordance with international guidelines.
27
The reintegration of combatants is difficult, but it is critically
important to stability in the post-conflict period. In many conflicts, soldiers
have been recruited at a very young age. As a result, the capacity of former
combatants to return to peacetime society and make a living is severely
compromised, thereby undermining society's prospects for development.
28
Effective reintegration of combatants is also essential to the
sustainability of peace. Credit and small-enterprise programmes are vital if
ex-combatants are to find productive employment. Basic education for re-entry
into civilian society, special vocational programmes, on-the-job training, and
education in agricultural techniques and management skills are key to
post-conflict peace-building. To a certain extent, some technical skills learned
by soldiers can be important to national reconstruction.
29
As conflict typically takes a heavy toll on the mechanisms of
governance, post-conflict efforts must pay special attention to their repair.
Key institutions of civil society, judicial systems, for example, may need to be
reinforced or even created anew. This means assistance for a variety of
governmental activities, such as a fair system for generating public sector
revenue, a legislative basis for the protection of human rights, and rules for
the operation of private enterprise.
30
Pulling up the roots of conflict goes beyond immediate post-conflict
requirements and the repair of war-torn societies. The underlying conditions
that led to conflict must be addressed. As the causes of conflict are varied, so
must be the means of addressing them. Peace-building means fostering a culture
of peace. Land reform, water-sharing schemes, common economic enterprise zones,
joint tourism projects and cultural exchanges can make a major difference.
Restoring employment growth will be a strong inducement to the young to abandon
the vocation of war.
31
Reduction of military expenditure is a vital link in the chain between
development and peace. Although worldwide military expenditures continue to
consume too large a share of productive resources and capacity, progress has
been made in recent years. Worldwide, between 1987 and 1992 a cumulative peace
dividend of $500 billion was realized; $425 billion in industrial and
transitional countries and $75 billion in developing countries. Little of this
peace dividend appears to have been channelled into development.
32
While figures for exports of weapons show substantial declines in real
terms in the early years of this decade, major concerns persist. Imported stocks
of conventional weapons from countries rapidly reducing their military
establishments are finding their way to third countries. Relatively
unsophisticated weapons such as mortars, machine-guns and rocket launchers, even
in the hands of those with rudimentary military training, have caused immense
death and destruction. Paradoxically, those expressing great concern over the
rising stocks of arms worldwide are also the source of that phenomenon. The five
permanent members of the Security Council account for 86 per cent of the arms
supplies now flowing to the countries of the world.
33
Imports of armaments are often purchased at the expense of capital or
consumer goods. Reducing military expenditures makes more funds available to
finance development, satisfy consumer demands and meet basic social welfare
needs. A decrease in military outlays may support budgetary reform and promote
macroeconomic stability. National efforts can be reoriented away from military
priorities towards more productive and peaceful objectives. Global tensions and
rivalries can be reduced. The overall impact on development is potentially
profound.
34
The armed forces absorb some of the most talented members of society,
whose training costs are considerably above the social average and whose
energies are directed to the operation of increasingly sophisticated military
hardware. Armament production utilizes industrial skills and capacity that could
be put to other uses.
35
Among many of the countries in transition, procurement of new weapons
systems has collapsed and most military expenditure is now for personnel costs,
including pensions. Whole communities which were dependent on defence industries
are now threatened, unless they can adapt themselves to changing requirements.
Fears of further increases in unemployment are slowing reductions in the size of
armed forces, while military industries are being kept solvent by massive
subsidies to the detriment of overall macroeconomic goals.
36
Demilitarization has also produced painful strains among the
industrialized market economies, though less severe than those in countries in
transition. Particular localities and firms have been severely affected, but the
market mechanism has made it easier for resources to be absorbed in other
sectors of the economy. Alternative employment has often been difficult to find
for many workers however, and retraining remains sporadic.
37
These problems, however, should not deter countries from promoting the
transition towards smaller militaries. The reduction of military spending not
only frees up public expenditures for social purposes, but also allows credit to
flow to needed economic investments. Over the longer term, these transitions
will prove worthwhile, even if they are painful in the short term.
38
While it had been hoped that the end of the cold war would lead to a
dramatic fall in military spending, progress has been difficult to achieve in an
atmosphere increasingly marked by ethnic strife and economic insecurity. Relief
at the end of the bipolar arms race is being supplanted by alarm over the
prospect of several regional build-ups of both conventional arms and weapons of
mass destruction. In a number of countries, especially in the Middle East and
Asia, military expenditure has continued to increase. Fear of confrontation over
shared resources, domestic instability and fear of heavily armed neighbours have
all been factors. In some instances, the diminished possibility of super-Power
intervention has increased the explosiveness of regional antagonisms. The
lucrative aspects of the arms trade should also be taken into account. In this
context, I support calls for a worldwide ban on the production and transfer of
land-mines and their components.
39
Arms control and disarmament reduce the threat of destruction, economic
decline and tensions that lead to war. A world of lower military expenditures,
reduced military establishments, smaller stocks of weapons and less
environmental destruction by military-related activities is not only desirable
in itself, but propitious for development.
40
Today, even remote conflicts can pose security and developmental
concerns far beyond a State's borders. This new recognition gives international
peace and security a wider meaning, calls for measures that can further
development even during conflict, and indicates that development, when
successfully pursued, is another way to define peace.
42
Accelerating the rate of economic growth is a condition for expanding
the resource base and hence for economic, technological and social
transformation. While economic growth does not ensure that benefits will be
equitably distributed or that the physical environment will be protected,
without economic growth the material resources for tackling environmental
degradation will not exist, nor will it be possible to pursue social programmes
effectively in the long term. The advantage of economic growth is that it
increases the range of human choice.
43
It is not sufficient, however, to pursue economic growth for its own
sake. It is important that growth be sustained and sustainable. Growth should
promote full employment and poverty reduction, and should seek improved patterns
of income distribution through greater equality of opportunity.
44
If poverty persists or increases and there is neglect of the human
condition, political and social strains will endanger stability over time. The
reduction of poverty requires development in which access to the benefits of
economic progress are as widely available as possible, and not concentrated
excessively in certain localities, sectors or groups of the population.
45
Improved education, health and shelter, together with an increase in
meaningful employment opportunities, will contribute directly to reducing
poverty and its consequences. Apart from being desirable goals in themselves,
education, health and shelter are all essential to a productive workforce and
hence to economic growth. The elimination of hunger and malnutrition should be
targets in their own right.
46
For sustained growth to take place, two conditions are necessary; a
supportive national environment, and a favourable international climate. Without
appropriate national policies, no amount of assistance, bilateral or
multilateral, will lead to sustained growth. On the contrary, assistance given
in this way can reinforce dependence on the outside world. Without a favourable
international climate, domestic policy reform will be difficult to achieve,
threatening the success of reforms and increasing the hardships suffered by the
population.
47
Successful national economic experiences must be based on pragmatic
policies. The need to take advantage of the efficiency of markets must be
tempered by recognition of the need for Governments to act where markets cannot
provide all the answers.
48
Governments can no longer be assumed to be paramount economic agents.
They nevertheless retain the responsibility to provide a regulatory framework
for the effective operation of a competitive market system. Governments have to
intervene where appropriate: to invest in infrastructure, to facilitate the
development of productive sectors, to provide an enabling environment for the
promotion of private enterprise, to ensure that proper social safety nets are in
place, to invest in human capital and to protect the environment. Governments
provide the framework in which individuals can plan their long-term prospects.
49
There are no definite prescriptions for a division of roles. Public and
private expenditures are not invariably substitutes for one another. The
relationship between them is frequently of a complementary rather than a
competitive character. Government policies for the promotion of a sound
macroeconomic framework are essential for sustained economic growth. Such
macroeconomic policies, however, must rest upon solid micro-economic foundations
which provide for the efficient allocation of scarce resources. Should markets
fail to perform their functions, or fail to address essential welfare
considerations, there is scope for government intervention. However, government
policies and programmes are subject to failure as well; in such circumstances an
empowered private sector can be essential.
50
Finding the right blend of government direction of the economy and
encouragement of private initiative is perhaps the most pressing challenge of
economic development. This is not only a problem for developing or transitional
economies. In the search for the difficult path which lies between dirigisme and
laissez-faire, all countries are involved. Major market economies, with
recurrent recession and persistent high rates of unemployment, are also facing
this challenge.
51
Increasing interdependence among nations has accelerated the
transmission of both positive growth impulses and negative shocks. As a result,
economic problems, even at the national level, now have to be seen in their
global context. The distinction between national and international economic
policies is fading. No nation, however successful, can insulate itself from the
demographic, environmental, economic, social and military problems which exist
in the world. The effects of deprivation, disease and strife in one part of the
globe are felt everywhere. They will not be successfully managed until global
development is under way.
52
All countries are part of an international economic system, but while
many countries remain imperfectly integrated into it, others are excessively
vulnerable to its instability. Development is hampered by external debt
problems, the decrease in external resource flows, sharply declining terms of
trade and mounting barriers to market access. Inadequate technological
cooperation has prevented many countries from improving the efficiency of
resource use, thus adversely affecting their international competitiveness and
further inhibiting their integration into the world economy.
53
The expansion of international trade is essential to economic growth
and is an integral part of the economic dimension of development. The benefits
of increased commerce and trade are not in doubt: lower transaction costs,
greater economic opportunities and enhanced international confidence, trust and
security.
54
Difficult access to the world trading system is an enormous obstacle to
development. At present, that system often discriminates against the developing
world by limiting its advantage in low labour costs, while the price of many
primary commodities has tended to decline.
55
The internationalization of economic activity, the increasing reliance
on market forces, the widespread recognition that private initiative is a potent
force for economic growth, and the massive efforts undertaken towards trade
liberalization by developing and transitional countries call for an open and
transparent trading system in which rules and disciplines are respected by all.
When countries find that they have a distinct comparative advantage in one
particular economic activity and invest accordingly, they should not be
confronted later with new protectionist measures when their investment is
beginning to yield fruit and their product penetrates other markets.
56
But economic interdependence is rapidly becoming far more than a matter
of trade and finance. There are also strong trends towards greater openness in
the movement of funds, people and ideas around the world. This has encouraged
Governments to create a national environment that attracts outside investment.
57
The pursuit of globally responsible macroeconomic policies by those
countries whose economic strength shapes the international economic environment
is essential to all development efforts. The role of the major economies in
world finance remains preponderant. Their policies on interest rates, inflation
and exchange rate stability are particularly significant. Exchange rate
volatility compounds the debt problem through its effect on interest rates,
foreign exchange earnings and reserves, and debt servicing. The policies the
major economies follow in their domestic affairs will be of decisive importance
in a world increasingly characterized by global capital markets.
58
Effective international cooperation for development cannot succeed
unless the major economies make it their own objective. No mechanism exists by
which the major economies can be induced to make globally beneficial structural
change in their own economies, or to adopt more globally responsible economic,
fiscal and monetary policies.
59
At present, economic policy coordination among the major economies
centres on the Group of Seven industrialized countries. Repeated efforts by the
developing world, such as the current attempt to create a Group of Seven-Group
of Fifteen (Summit Level Group for South-South Consultation and Cooperation)
connection, have failed. With the recognition that growth in the major
industrialized countries is no longer the sole engine of global development,
change is warranted so that the processes of economic policy coordination become
more broad-based.
60
The mechanisms for integrating responsible economic policies at the
international level and growth at the national level are not yet fully
developed. Leading the list of priorities are adequate measures to reduce the
crippling burden of international debt, policies to discourage tendencies
towards protectionism, and ensuring that the developing world shares in the
benefits of the new World Trade Organization regime.
61
The lack of financial resources necessary for economic development is
exacerbated by the debt crisis, which makes an already difficult situation much
worse. In the last decade, indebted developing countries have had to transfer on
average between 2 and 3 per cent of their gross domestic product (GDP) abroad;
in some instances transfers have amounted to 6 per cent or more of GDP.
Perversely, some developing countries have now become net exporters of financial
resources.
62
The debt problem has many facets. Large amounts are owed to commercial banks by some countries. Many low-income countries owe large amounts to official bilateral and multilateral creditors. Efforts have been made to restructure commercial debt and, in certain cases, forgive bilateral official debt. But not enough has been done to alleviate the burden of multilateral debt or to assist countries that, despite a large debt-servicing burden, are not in default.
63
No single formula for generating economic growth exists, but, half a
century after the emergence of development as an independent field of inquiry,
certain basic conditions are recognized as essential. Foremost among these is
the need to take a strategic decision for development. The State must have the
political will to act.
64
Development decisions are not taken in a vacuum. All societies must
take into account previous development choices, political constituencies,
structures of production, relations with the external environment and cultural
values and expectations. The pattern of growth will depend to a large extent
upon the influence of these factors and the compromises they entail.
65
The experience of countries which have achieved rapid development in
the past few years can be seen as the outcome of a conscious choice by the State
to give strategic priority to growth. The influence of State policies, for
example in encouraging research and development or providing infrastructural and
educational support, has been crucial. This does not mean, however, that growth
takes place through State institutions. The State gives an impetus to growth;
but it is the economy that needs to grow, not the State itself.
66
It is the State which must translate growth into forms acceptable to
its political constituencies. Whatever the mode of production adopted, sustained
growth which relies on the accumulation of capital, physical, human and
institutional, will entail certain sacrifices of present consumption. The
decision to defer consumption in favour of expected future returns is a
political choice, as much as it is a decision by individuals to save.
67
The basic lesson of recent decades remains valid; as conditions,
circumstances and capacities differ, so too must the mechanisms for generating
growth. Growth requires political commitment and vision. The United Nations can
act as facilitator and communicator, but it cannot substitute for the commitment
of individual States and their domestic and international partners.
69
Development and environment are not separate concepts, nor can one be
successfully addressed without reference to the other. The environment is a
resource for development. Its condition is an important measure and its
preservation a constant concern of development. Successful development requires
policies that incorporate environmental considerations. This link was accepted
at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992.
That Conference provided a model for other efforts toward greater coherence in
development.
70
Preserving the availability and rationalizing the use of the earth's
natural resources are among the most compelling issues that individuals,
societies and States must face. A country's natural resources are often its most
easily accessible and exploitable development assets. How well these natural
resources are managed and protected has a significant impact on development and
on a society's potential for progress.
71
In the context of development, each society must confront the difficult
challenges associated with protecting the long-term potential of its natural
resources. Competing needs and interests must be balanced. Present social and
economic needs must be satisfied in ways that do not undermine long-term
resource availability, or the viability of the ecosystems on which we, and
future generations, depend.
72
Environmental degradation reduces both the quality and the quantity of
many resources used directly by people. The consequences of failing to pay
adequate attention to natural resource destruction can be catastrophic. Water
pollution damages fisheries. Increasing salinity and erosion of topsoil lowers
crop yields. Agricultural degradation and deforestation have promoted drought
and soil erosion, and made malnutrition and famine increasingly familiar
occurrences in certain regions. Overfishing and the exhaustion of marine
resources have put ancient communities at risk. Excessive logging and the
destruction of rain forests have destroyed important natural habitats, and
undermined global biodiversity. Environmentally unsound practices in the
extraction of natural resources have left large regions barren and contaminated.
73
Most alarming is the fact that degradation can, in some cases, be
irreversible. Practices that will do permanent damage to the health of the
planet should be urgently identified. Such practices must be halted.
74
While ensuring the preservation of natural resources implies certain
limitations, it also provides many valuable incentives and opportunities for new
thinking. Science and technology can play an important role. Increased energy
efficiency and the development of new and renewable sources of energy will be
essential. A change in lifestyles and attitudes towards energy consumption by
more affluent people, along with more efficient production processes, will
contribute to a more sustainable pattern of global development.
75
Integrating natural resource management and conservation into national
development can have many broadly beneficial results. Tourism, upon which many
countries rely, can bring important benefits, including vital infrastructure
creation, increased direct and indirect employment, enhanced foreign exchange
earnings, heightened environmental awareness, increased international exposure
and unique opportunities for building a stronger national identity. It is
important to develop sustainable tourism strategies which preserve the natural
environment.
76
Initiatives now being pioneered in several Member States are also
demonstrating the importance of community involvement in all development
efforts. By making local inhabitants incentive partners rather than simply
collateral beneficiaries, these programmes have broken new ground. The results
in many places have been significant, leading to increased appreciation for the
benefits of preserving natural resources, greater community cooperation in
preserving tourist assets and higher rural incomes. They are important examples
from which many others can learn and benefit.
77
The link between the environment and development involves much more
than the sound exploitation of natural resources however. Preserving and
protecting the ecological equilibrium of our environment is a vital component
not only of human development, but also of human survival.
78
Social welfare is reduced by ill health and premature mortality caused
by degradation of air and water quality and by other environmental risks.
Pollutants can cause health problems through direct exposure, or indirectly
through changes in the physical environment. Threats to health range from
increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation to deterioration in food and water
quality.
79
Toxic chemicals and heavy metals can contaminate rivers and other water
supplies. Many of these contaminants can be hard to remove from drinking water
using standard purification techniques. Pollutants can be absorbed by people who
do not realize that the food is contaminated. The exposure to hazardous
materials and the risk of contamination as a result of industrial accidents are
also issues linking environment and development.
80
Although discussion of the tangible and material aspects of the
environment often eclipses discussion of other benefits, the intrinsic worth and
value of nature itself should be respected and the intangible satisfaction that
can be derived from enjoying the natural environment should be recognized.
81
Natural disasters can have an enormous and dramatic impact on
development efforts. Because natural disasters can quickly devour hard-won
achievements, planning must focus on ways to cushion the inevitable shocks, so
that social structures will not be irreparably damaged, economic initiatives
will not be forever set back, and natural disaster victims will not be condemned
to perpetual dependence on external assistance.
82
Improved environmental management requires that businesses, households,
farmers, the international community and Governments change the way they behave.
Targeted policies are needed to ensure that environmental values are properly
reflected in economic activity. Public as well as private enterprises must be
held accountable for the environmental impact of their activities, and
Governments must take the lead in formulating policies and pursuing development
strategies that encourage environmentally sound development.
83
In many countries, institutional inadequacies are proving to be major
obstacles to the design and implementation of environmentally sound and
responsible development projects. Therefore, national capacities for designing,
implementing and enforcing environmental policies must be strengthened.
84
The interconnections between the environment, society, the economy and
political participation highlight the importance of addressing the environmental
aspect of development in a national context. The link between poverty and
environmental sustainability is particularly compelling. Although poor
communities often have a strong ethic of stewardship in managing their
traditional lands, growing population pressures and a lack of resources often
make it difficult for them to avoid degrading their environment. The very poor,
struggling at the edge of subsistence, are preoccupied with day-to-day survival.
Often, they are both victims and agents of environmental deterioration. Policies
that improve the environment, reducing water contamination, for example, often
bring the greatest positive benefit to the poorest members of society. Policies
that are effective in reducing poverty will help reduce population growth and
decrease pressure on the environment.
85
Policies that promote technological cooperation and the efficient use
of resources can also help in finding solutions to environmental challenges. The
relationships between inputs and outputs and the overall effects of economic
activity on the environment are continually changing. The key to increased
sustainability is not necessarily to produce less, but rather to produce
differently. Rising incomes can pay for investments in environmental
improvement, and preventing the depletion or degradation of nature is much less
expensive than trying to undo the damage.
86
Individuals and communities often lack information about environmental
impacts or about low-cost ways to avoid damage. Governments and others must
therefore actively promote environmental awareness. Awareness can be the most
significant factor in motivating environmental action.
87
If sustainable development is to succeed, it must become the concern
and commitment not just of Governments, but of all segments of society.
Sustainable development means a commitment to using renewable resources and to
avoiding the over-consumption of non-renewable resources. It means choosing
products and production processes that have the least adverse impact on the
environment. In agriculture, it means avoiding the excessive use of harmful,
energy-intensive chemicals and preserving biodiversity. In all areas of public
and private life it means a commitment to conserving natural resources and
protecting the ecological equilibrium.
88
Setting priorities for international environmental policy is
particularly complex. The costs of doing nothing may be borne by other nations,
and the gains may not accrue to those that take the most difficult decisions.
89
Consideration must be given to problems at all levels. Some problems,
such as damage to the ozone layer, are global. Transborder industrial pollution
may be regional. Drinking-water contamination may be local in effect. The
respective roles of regulation and incentives at different levels can be
crucial. Norms and direct regulations will be necessary, but the use of taxes
and licences can also achieve results.
90
The consequences of deforestation and environmental degradation have
produced pressures that have touched off bitter conflicts. In a growing number
of regions, poverty, resource degradation and conflict are becoming an
all-too-familiar triangle. Throughout the world, refugees from the effects of
environmental devastation and depletion place an added burden on already
hard-pressed urban areas.
91
But while the spectre of resource-based conflict dramatizes the common
stake that all nations have in addressing the challenge of environment and
development, international cooperation is required in order effectively to
address a wide range of common environment and development interests. When the
effects of environmental degradation cross national boundaries it is not
possible to rely, as in an individual country, on a common legal framework, on
uniform regulatory controls, on shared economic incentives or on the coercive
powers of a national Government.
92
Solutions to international environmental problems must be based on
common principles and rules of collaboration among sovereign States, backed up
by persuasion and negotiation. Regional problems, with possible political
implications, can arise when neighbouring countries share a common resource,
such as international rivers or regional seas. There are also global
environmental resources, such as the atmosphere and the oceans, that must be a
target of multilateral action. In the case of resources that belong to one
country but that are of value to the international community, ecological
habitats and rare species, for example, individual States are entitled to
international cooperation for the preservation of the common legacy.
93
Sustainability must be strengthened as a guiding principle of
development. Partnership is required at all levels of the development effort;
among different departments and levels of administration within States, as well
as between international organizations, Governments and non-State actors. In
short, true partnership is required between humanity and nature.
95
Existing social conditions are the starting-point for development
efforts. To a large extent, they determine its priorities and its direction.
Throughout much of the developing world, poverty, disease and the need for
education and sustainable livelihoods are the most urgent and compelling
priorities for development. In many of the countries in transition, sudden
economic hardship, decaying industries and infrastructures and profound social
disorientation are problems that development must urgently address. Among the
richest countries, the growth of a permanent and disaffected underclass, the
arrival of increasing numbers of economic migrants and a rise in xenophobia and
exclusionary attitudes are realities that must be faced as these societies
continue to advance and develop.
96
People are a country's principal asset. Their well-being defines
development. Their energy and initiative drive development. Their
characteristics determine the nature and direction of sustainable human
development. The benefits of investing in people, however, go beyond increasing
the productivity of labour and facilitating access to global opportunities. A
healthy, well-educated citizenry contributes to the social cohesion of a country
and imparts a dynamism to all aspects of life and culture.
97
Absolute poverty, hunger, disease and illiteracy are the lot of one
fifth of the world's population. There can be no more urgent task for
development than to attack both the causes and the symptoms of these ills. It is
a task that requires action and commitment. It is an agenda that requires the
widest possible distribution of development efforts, the implementation of
broad-based strategies and the orientation of development efforts towards
projects that enhance people rather than national prestige.
98
Demographic growth rates affect the consumption and production patterns
of societies. Beyond a certain point, however, unsustainable and unsupportable
population growth can have adverse effects on development efforts globally.
These effects in turn have profound implications for the use of natural
resources such as water, wood, fuel and air. They affect the ability of
Governments to supply the basic services that people require, including
education and health care.
99
Fertility and mortality rates have societal implications that go beyond
population counts. Reduction in fertility, for example, means smaller households
and less time devoted to childbearing and rearing. These changes enable
increased numbers of women to continue their formal education and to choose to
work outside the home. Education further increases their chances of employment
and enhances their ability to make choices in all aspects of life. Lower levels
of mortality and fertility also result in the ageing of populations, a
phenomenon that has significant implications for the labour force, dependency
rates, social welfare services and health delivery systems.
100
Extended conflict has a dramatic impact on population profiles; the
number of female-headed households increases as does the number of orphans and
handicapped people. Close attention to these vulnerable populations is an
immediate and major priority, for, without them, society itself cannot succeed.
Once the family unit is reconstructed and the weak and most afflicted given
care, they can provide the foundation for development efforts on a wider scale.
101
The importance of social integration as a development priority is
evident worldwide, and among countries across the development spectrum.
Manifestations of the lack of social integration are familiar: discrimination,
fanaticism, intolerance, persecution. The consequences are also familiar: social
disaffection, separatism, micronationalism and conflict.
102
The challenge of social integration is now increasingly
internationalized. Large movements of people across international borders,
seeking new and better lives, are critically affecting both national and
international agendas. While millions of people flee from wars, famines and
natural disasters, additional millions are migrating to find employment. The
regulation of immigration has become a contentious political issue in many
receiving countries, while political pressures to emigrate have added to social
and economic tensions in many countries of departure. Emigrants can be among the
most highly skilled and best educated, representing a serious loss of national
resources and investment.
103
Until development on a global scale improves, large populations will
continue to move across borders despite efforts to control or impede their flow.
In some societies, resentment against migrants has fanned the flames of hatred
and intolerance, and official policies have often seemed to condone separatism
rather than promote social integration. Elsewhere, immigrant groups have
resisted social integration. The treatment of migrants has become an issue of
considerable tension in many bilateral relationships.
104
The enormous challenge of development cannot be undertaken by people
whose every thought is bent towards getting enough to eat or recovery from
debilitating sickness. A population that is illiterate and uneducated cannot
hope to compete in a world economy that is becoming ever more complex and
sophisticated. A society where women are discriminated against or lack equal
opportunities cannot reach its full human potential.
105
While investment in physical capital is an important aspect of
stimulating economic growth, investment in human development is an investment in
long-term competitiveness and a necessary component of stable and sustainable
progress. Investment in human resources must, therefore, be seen not merely as a
by-product of economic growth, but rather as a powerful and necessary driving
force for all aspects of development. A stable economy and a stable political
order cannot be built in an unstable society. A strong social fabric is a
prerequisite to sustainability.
106
The creation of an environment that will provide wide access to assets
and opportunities may require governmental measures. Creating the political
conditions which allow for adequate weight to be given to social development and
the implementation of social development policies is also essential. These are
major responsibilities of government, and of all the institutions of society.
Governments should ensure that consideration is given to social and
environmental factors in the framework of the market economy, and that emphasis
is given to activities that promote human development throughout society.
Education, health services, housing and social welfare are particular areas in
which government action is often needed.
107
A vigorous civil society is indispensable to creating lasting and
successful social development. Social development, if it is to take hold, must
spring from society itself. Government must lead and facilitate, but government
cannot, and should not, be the only force for social progress. Non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), community organizations, private enterprise, worker's
organizations and other groups must all be actively involved. Locally based
NGOs, in particular, can serve as intermediaries and give people a voice and an
opportunity to articulate their needs, preferences and vision of a better
society. Policy makers should view such organizations not as rivals to
government, but as partners. In countries where civil society is weak,
strengthening civil society should be a major purpose of public policy.
108
In helping to create the conditions within which social development
can take place, popular participation at all levels of society is of vital
importance. In order to fulfil their potential, people must participate actively
in formulating their own goals, and their voices must be heard in
decision-making bodies as they seek to pursue their own most appropriate path to
development.
109
Democracy and a vigorous civil society are particularly vital in
helping to ensure that government is sensitive to the societal costs of its
policies. In many countries, the necessary process of economic structural
adjustment has had harsh social consequences. Rising consumer prices and
declining employment and income have often been the most immediately visible
effect of adjustment and transformation. The disproportionate impact of the
resulting hardships on poor and vulnerable groups has been particularly
devastating. A general decline in government expenditures in the social sector,
as a result of heightened budgetary austerity, has compounded the suffering for
many.
110
Structural adjustment remains a necessary prescription to remedy
serious economic imbalance. But it should also be clear that human needs and
priorities must not be neglected, and that adjustment and transformation must
have a clear human focus. The laws of economics cannot be changed, but their
social consequences can be eased. Flexibility is required. In the face of such
challenges, Governments must be encouraged to stay the course, but greater care
must also be taken to help Governments address the dire human consequences of
such reforms.
111
The expansion of productive employment is central to the alleviation
and reduction of poverty and the enhancement of social integration, yet
increasing unemployment levels are prevalent worldwide. In many countries,
higher levels of unemployment than in the past have been accompanied by
significant declines in real wages among those who are employed. Among countries
where full employment was previously the official norm, rapidly rising
unemployment has had profound psychological consequences in addition to its
severe economic and social impact. Among some countries, a prolonged period of
economic retrenchment has produced the phenomenon of "jobless growth", and a
more pervasive feeling of employment insecurity. Of the world labour force of
2.5 billion people, an estimated 30 per cent are not productively employed.
112
No single blueprint can be given for curing unemployment or expanding
productive employment. Labour market measures, training and retraining
programmes, targeted employment-creation schemes and macroeconomic policy can
all affect employment levels. Since most jobs in the near future are likely to
be created in the private sector, well-designed incentive structures have an
important role to play in attracting and channelling private investment for
employment growth. One of the tasks of the State is to create the enabling
environment for the private sector to create more and better jobs. A fair and
reliable legal framework, a stable investment environment and the maintenance of
basic infrastructures are essential.
113
Because agriculture accounts for the bulk of the labour force in the
developing world, measures aimed at boosting agricultural productivity and
expanding and diversifying the range of farm and off-farm activities need to be
regarded as a development priority. Food pricing policies, agricultural
techniques, rural non-farm activities with employment linkages, rural
infrastructure and environmentally appropriate conservation programmes are
essential components of support for the rural sector. Agricultural research to
increase yields should continue to be supported.
114
Employment potential is also affected by conditions in the
international economy and the structure of the international economic
environment. Trade barriers have a backward ripple effect, taking away
productive jobs and livelihoods in producer countries and retarding the
potential for economic growth.
115
Today, employment issues must be examined in an international context.
In the countries in transition there has been a necessary move towards
market-economy principles a process that has temporarily generated higher levels
of unemployment than had previously been experienced. Among the richest
industrialized countries, structural unemployment has increased. In addition,
the growth of international competitiveness has led to many industries becoming
obsolete and thousands of defence industry jobs disappearing. These shifts
require the retraining of millions of workers. Among both types of economies,
occupational mobility is an important part of employment creation. While
economically efficient, occupational mobility can be a source of psychological
and social disruption. Governments, enterprises and trade unions have an
increased responsibility to facilitate worker adaptation and mobility and to
offer training and social protection during transition periods.
116
A good general education at primary and secondary levels not only
provides a broad knowledge base, but also lays a foundation for the subsequent
acquisition of more narrowly defined skills, and for renewing, adapting or
changing these skills to suit better the evolving needs of individuals and
societies. Education facilitates equality of opportunity, thereby contributing
to greater equity. Education that is both broad-based and flexible can be a
driving force for progress in all dimensions of development: political,
economic, environmental and social.
117
The significance of the social dimension to development must not only
be recognized, but it must also be acted upon. The political profile of social
development issues must be raised both nationally and internationally. Each
country has a duty to address social development within its own society, and
each also has a duty to contribute to progress towards a more global solution to
these challenges. The present period provides an historic opportunity to do so
in an environment that is relatively free from excessive ideological tensions.
It is an opportunity to be seized and turned to advantage.
119
In viewing democracy in the context of development, processes and
trends rather than events must be our focus. From this perspective, the natural
connection between development and democracy becomes clearer. Just as
development is a process rather than an event, so too must democracy be regarded
as a process which grows and must be sustained over time. The World Conference
on Human Rights stressed the mutually reinforcing interrelationship of
democracy, development and respect for human rights.
120
Democracy and development are linked in fundamental ways. They are
linked because democracy provides the only long-term basis for managing
competing ethnic, religious, and cultural interests in a way that minimizes the
risk of violent internal conflict. They are linked because democracy is
inherently attached to the question of governance, which has an impact on all
aspects of development efforts. They are linked because democracy is a
fundamental human right, the advancement of which is itself an important measure
of development. They are linked because people's participation in the
decision-making processes which affect their lives is a basic tenet of
development.
121
The accumulation of economic despair, and the lack of democratic means
to effect change, have sparked or exacerbated violent and destructive impulses
even within relatively homogeneous societies. Civil conflict and strife have
increasingly become threats to international peace and profound obstacles to
development. Ethnic antagonism, religious intolerance and cultural separatism
threaten the cohesion of societies and the integrity of States in all parts of
the world. Alienated and insecure minorities, and even majorities, have
increasingly turned to armed conflict as a means of addressing social and
political grievances.
122
Democracy is the only long-term means of both arbitrating and
regulating the many political, social, economic and ethnic tensions that
constantly threaten to tear apart societies and destroy States. In the absence
of democracy as a forum for competition and a vehicle for change, development
will remain fragile and be perpetually at risk.
123
Unrest and conflict can destroy in a few months progress towards
development painstakingly achieved over the course of many years. In the
eventual rush to settle old scores, redress perceived grievances and establish
new Utopias, whatever gains that may have been achieved will be one of the many
casualties.
124
Holding elections is only one element in democratization. Member
States have sought and received United Nations assistance in facilitating
decolonization, thereby implementing the right to self-determination, in
designing procedures to smooth and facilitate transitions to democracy and in
building democratic alternatives to conflict. United Nations support has also
been provided for activities such as drafting constitutions, instituting
administrative and financial reforms, strengthening domestic human rights laws,
enhancing judicial structures, training human rights officials and helping armed
opposition movements transform themselves into democratically competitive
political parties.
125
Improving and enhancing governance is an essential condition for the
success of any agenda or strategy for development. Governance may be the single
most important development variable within the control of individual States.
126
In the context of development, improved governance has several
meanings. In particular however, it means the design and pursuit of a
comprehensive national strategy for development. It means ensuring the capacity,
reliability and integrity of the core institutions of the modern State. It means
improving the ability of government to carry out governmental policies and
functions, including the management of implementation systems. It means
accountability for actions and transparency in decision-making.
127
Regardless of ideology, geography or stage of development, societies
lacking in democracy tend, over time, to resemble each other, with a relatively
powerless middle class, a population constrained to silence and a ruling
oligarchy which benefits itself through the management of a system of pervasive
and often institutionalized corruption. People in a democracy have greater
freedom to speak out against graft and corruption. Improved governance means
that bureaucratic procedures help ensure fairness rather than enrich officials.
128
While democracy is not the only means by which improved governance can
be achieved, it is the only reliable one. By providing for greater popular
participation, democracy increases the likelihood that national development
goals will reflect broad societal aspirations and priorities. By providing
appropriate mechanisms and channels for governmental succession, democracy
provides incentives to protect the capacity, reliability and integrity of core
state institutions, including the civil service, the legal system and the
democratic process itself. By establishing the political legitimacy of
governments, democracy strengthens their capacity to carry out their policies
and functions efficiently and effectively. By making Governments accountable to
citizens, democracy makes particular Governments more responsive to popular
concerns and provides added incentives for transparency in decision-making.
129
The mandate of the people to govern provides legitimacy; it does not
carry with it, however, the guarantee of skill or wisdom. Democracy cannot
instantly produce good governance, nor will democratic government immediately
lead to substantial improvements in growth rates, social conditions or equality.
By providing channels for participation of people in decisions which affect
their lives, democracy brings government closer to the people. Through
decentralization and strengthening of community structures, local factors
relevant to development decisions can more adequately be taken into account.
130
Democracy leaves no room for complacency. Anti-democratic practices
can be identified in those countries where democratic traditions have most
deeply taken root. Chronically low voter turnouts, financing of candidates by
special interests and the lack of transparency of certain institutions of
government can be cited as specific examples. Similarly, the presence of a
permanent underclass is a feature of many of the richest societies. Finally, the
persistence of high levels of unemployment and the presence of foreign migrants
have led to the revival of xenophobic, ultranationalist and fundamentally
anti-democratic movements in some societies with the highest standards of
living. These phenomena point towards a need to strengthen political development
even in societies where democracy has long been considered secure.
131
Elsewhere, the release of pent-up frustrations resulting from decades
of one-party rule has led to a confusion between multi-party elections and
lasting democracy. While pluralism and parliaments are essential to the
transition to democratic government, the demise of the one-party State does not
ensure the ultimate triumph of democracy. The fragmentation of multi-ethnic
societies and the difficult beginning of the transition to the market-economy
have led to a revival of anti-democratic tendencies which seek to exercise
political power.
132
The rise of anti-democratic forces, basing their appeal on popular
disappointment with poor economic performance, is not confined to affluent
societies or to societies in transition. Many societies throughout the
developing world now face the difficult task of coping not only with the
transition to democracy, but also with reform of their economies. Raised
expectations and difficult economic conditions generated in the early stages of
reform also pose a challenge to democratization. In many cases, involvement in
civil or international conflicts further complicates the situation. Where
resources are scarce and where the bulk of the population cannot satisfy its
basic needs, political development is exceedingly difficult to achieve.
Political progress is often obstructed by the struggle for economic and social
advancement.
133
Sustaining democracy and development within States is closely linked
to expanding democracy in relations among States and at all levels of the
international system. Democracy in international relations provides the only
basis for building mutual support and respect among nations. Without true
democracy in international relations, peace will not endure, and a satisfactory
pace of development cannot be assured.
134
Democracy within the family of nations is a principle that is integral
to the system of international relations envisioned in the Charter of the United
Nations. It is a principle that means affording to all States, large and small,
the fullest opportunity to consult and to participate. It means the application
of democratic principles within the United Nations itself. It means that all
organs of the United Nations must be accorded, and play, their full and proper
role. It will help maintain an equilibrium among the political, economic and
social activities of the United Nations so that they may be mutually
reinforcing.
135
Democracy in international relations also means respect for democratic
principles in interactions taking place outside the United Nations. It means
bilateral discussions instead of bilateral threats. It means respect for the
integrity and the sovereignty of other nations. It means consultation and
coordination in addressing problems of mutual concern. It means cooperation for
development.
136
Dialogue, discussion and agreement are demanding activities. But they
are the essence of democracy, within nations and within the family of nations.
Above all, they are the principal means through which the society of States must
strive to express its common will and achieve progress.
137
In this new era, when information, knowledge, communication and
intellectual interchange are critical to economic and social success, democracy
must be seen not only as an ideal, or an event, but also as a process which is
essential to achieving tangible progress. Democracy supplies the only long-term
and sustainable route to successful development. Democratization within the
international system permits voices for development not only to be heard but
also to carry political weight. A more democratic world can facilitate
cooperative work on an agenda for development.
138
The five dimensions of development outlined here, peace, the economy,
the environment, society and democracy, are closely interlinked. These
dimensions are not arbitrary, but emerge from a half-century of practical work
by the United Nations and others with Governments, organizations and people.
Achieving greater coherence, consensus and cooperation for development is
considered in the following section.
140
But few, if any, societies can pursue all aspects of development
unaided. Development requires international cooperation and it requires that
other actors assist States in their efforts. Bilateral assistance from one State
to another amounts to some $62 billion annually. Such assistance is often given
in the form of "tied-aid".
141
Each State has its own particular approach to development. Even within
a single Government, related development issues are often dealt with by
different departments. At present, a Government may be represented within an
international development organization variously by its ministries of
agriculture, environment, finance, economics and foreign affairs.
142
In terms of the range of ideas, funds, projects and groups engaged,
development has emerged as a truly global endeavour. The actors in development,
public and private, national and international, are growing in number and
diversity. The sheer multiplicity of actors and agents now threatens to
overwhelm development efforts in some societies. The overall endeavour calls for
greater coherence. Moreover, the allocation of resources between various
dimensions of development remains unbalanced, with the result that many
activities, especially in the area of social development, remain underfinanced.
Coordination and prioritization are, therefore, critical as each of the various
entities involved has its particular objectives, agenda, constituency and mode
of operation. There is a need to put in place a system of international
cooperation that facilitates the mobilization of domestic resources and external
assistance (both technical and financial) for peace, the economy, the
environment, society and democracy.
143
The organs of the United Nations have been assigned by the Charter a
set of roles in development which call for new levels of coordination. The
General Assembly, through Chapters IV, IX and X of the Charter, is given
fundamental responsibility for international economic and social cooperation.
Throughout its first half-century, the Assembly has emerged as a universal forum
for debate and action on development issues affecting all States. The Economic
and Social Council, through functions and powers provided by Chapter X of the
Charter, possesses a range of responsibilities for studying, initiating and
coordinating issues relating to development. The Security Council, through the
provisions of Chapter VII, can adversely affect the course of development within
States to which sanctions apply, as well as in neighbouring and other States.
The Secretariat is the source of substantive support, including technical advice
and assistance on development needs in such fields as development planning and
policies, statistics, energy, natural resources and public administration.
(Annex I to the present report shows estimated expenditure of the United Nations
and its funds and programmes.) With responsibilities scattered among various
organs, the importance of coordination and coherence is clear. Through the
regional commissions, the Secretariat promotes the coordination of intersectoral
programmes and technical cooperation for the benefit of Member States.
144
The programmes and funds of the United Nations dispose of $3.6 billion
annually for operational activities (see annex II). As their work goes forward,
new trends are developing. A trend towards thematic and special purpose funding
presents new challenges and opportunities for the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) to support programmes through which recipient Governments can
coherently address all dimensions of sustainable human development. Another
trend is the shift in emphasis from development to relief activities. In the
work of the World Food Programme (WFP), for example, while all-time record
tonnages are being delivered, some three fifths by necessity are going for
short-term emergency relief rather than for long-term development. Impelled by
violence, social distress or economic need, nearly 20 million refugees and 25
million internally displaced persons, now require assistance. In 1993, some
$1.115 billion was expended in this cause by the Office of the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).
145
The specialized agencies of the United Nations system have their own
statutes, budgets and governing bodies. Together, they provide $6.3 billion in
concessional flows and $7.8 billion in non-concessional-related lending as net
disbursements. Specialized agencies derive about 40 per cent of their
operational funds from United Nations programmes and funds. Member States also
provide them with resources for specific projects. New trends are emerging. Over
the years, the Bretton Woods institutions (the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF)) have been regarded as primarily focused on the immediate
issues of macroeconomic stability and economic growth, leaving the long-term
social aspects of development to other entities within the United Nations
system. Changes in the course and character of global development are leading to
a reassessment of this dichotomy. Firstly, the distinction between "hard" and
"soft" issues has become blurred. Thus, the Bretton Woods institutions are now
involved in social development and the design of social safety nets in
conjunction with adjustment programmes. IMF is increasingly involved in
providing advice and resources in the medium-term context to promote
high-quality growth. The World Bank now considers environmental effects in
making loans and sets aside funds to finance social dimensions of adjustment.
Secondly, with the increasing magnitude of international lending and investment,
World Bank lending decisions have become less decisive in their direct impact on
development and more important as indicators of creditworthiness for private
capital markets. Thirdly, conditionality has reduced the policy latitude of
national Governments, thereby increasing the risks of domestic instability.
Taken together, these trends indicate a need for greater interaction between the
policy advice and country operations of the Bretton Woods institutions, and the
approaches and practices of other actors in development.
146
Regional arrangements and organizations are a growing phenomenon in
the world and provide development assistance of some $5.5 billion each year.
Regionalism is neither incompatible with nor an alternative to internationalism
as expressed through the United Nations. Regional cooperation is a necessity for
development everywhere. Regional trade associations provide expanded markets for
domestic enterprises, and encourage interregional agreements to facilitate
trade. Regional assistance can address development across political boundaries
and respond to practical needs wherever they arise. Water resources,
electrification, transportation, communication and health systems can all
benefit from region-wide approaches. Regional coordination can allocate
transnational trade-offs and transcend lower level bureaucratic rivalries. But
regionalization also carries with it the dangers of protectionism and
bureaucratic layering. Careful management is required to ensure that
regionalization facilitates the greater coordination that comprehensive
development demands.
147
NGOs undertake projects valued at more than $7 billion annually. Long
active in the search for peace, NGOs have often been at the scene of conflicts
at an early stage, making a crucial contribution to the immediate relief of
stricken populations and laying foundations for the reconstruction of war-torn
societies. With flexible structures, the ability to mobilize private funds, and
highly motivated staffs, NGOs possess a vast potential for the cause of
development. Over the past decade, the growth of NGOs in number and influence
has been phenomenal. They are creating new global networks and proving to be a
vital component of the great international conferences of this decade. The time
has arrived to bring NGO and United Nations activities into an increasingly
productive relationship of consultation and cooperation.
148
Private international investment flows have reached $1,000 billion per
year, offering immense potential for job creation, technology transfer, training
possibilities and trade promotion. The dynamism released by this process can
revive stagnant economies and promote integration into the global economic
system. Direct foreign investment can have a positive effect on the
technological pool available to countries for development. Private enterprise is
increasingly recognized as a positive factor in providing solutions to problems
previously thought to be the special province of public authorities. In some
countries private operators, for example, are providing effective public
services such as telecommunications, transport, power, waste recycling and water
supply. In many cases, subsidies to state companies could be replaced with
targeted subsidies so that some users could be charged the true cost of the
services and public money could be redirected to address broader needs.
149
Academic and scientific communities began centuries ago to weave a
global fabric of productive scholarship and research. Today, thousands of such
centres span the globe in a network of thought, experimentation, creativity and
virtually instantaneous intellectual exchange. Their work increasingly ranges
across disciplinary as well as political boundaries, rearranging and integrating
old categories into new patterns of social utility. The scientific community
forms a world-wide network, sharing certain fundamental interests, values and
standards. It is a community that has an important part to play in addressing
the great problems of development. Centres of science and technology are
addressing questions of immediate practical importance to the everyday life of
people, even as they bring the longer perspective of accumulated scientific and
humanistic achievement to bear on current issues. Science can expand development
options, through the development of new, safe, simple and effective methods of
family planning, the development of environmentally benign energy sources, the
improvement of agricultural techniques, better disease control, and in many
other ways. Less recognized but of deep importance is research in the social
sciences; the humanities and the arts. These not only enrich human existence, as
has long been recognized, but also are casting new light on many of the
essential characteristics and needs of life in the human community in all its
many forms.
150
Grass-roots organizations, such as religious communities,
neighbourhood associations and self-help groups, understand the interrelatedness
of economic, social, human and sustainable development. As they address the
needs of small communities otherwise often overlooked, the learning process in
development flows not only to but from their direction. Grass-roots and
community associations suffer from a low level of funding and are often in need
of technical assistance. Although funds should primarily be raised locally, the
United Nations is able to support activities at the micro-level by assisting
grass-roots organizations.
151
The sheer number of actors in development today, the global trends
that their activities reflect and the interrelationship of problems and the
mechanisms for their solution all highlight the urgent need for greater
awareness and more determined commitment.
153
The United Nations, universal in its membership and comprehensive in
its mandate, has the responsibility and the ability to draw global attention to
issues of broad importance. The United Nations can help alert, inform and
maintain international attention on problems not susceptible to quick or easy
solutions. In the last few years, the United Nations has been indispensable in
drawing attention to the need for environmental action, in addressing the impact
of demographic change, in the cause of human rights and in bringing an
international focus on development in all its aspects.
154
A sound informational foundation is vital in formulating all aspects
of economic policy. Governmental and private-sector planning and decision-making
can only be effective if the information relied upon is accurate and up to date.
The public's participation in economic, social and political activities cannot
be meaningful unless it is also well-informed.
155
Without an adequate informational base, countries operate at a
disadvantage in bilateral and multilateral negotiations. National access to
information on international economic, demographic, social and environmental
conditions is essential not only to informed decision-making, but also to
competitive and effective participation in international markets.
156
As an active collector of data and statistics, the United Nations
system is an important yet sometimes under-utilized informational asset for
Member States. The United Nations system has been at the forefront of efforts to
provide technical cooperation on establishing and upgrading information and
communications infrastructures. These efforts are widely valued, but require the
increasingly active support of Member States.
157
The Organization shapes common and comparable approaches to organizing
and structuring data, promotes unified standards for technical communication,
improves data collection methods, facilitates the mutually beneficial exchanges
of international data and information, helps analyse and evaluate data and
provides training and assistance in the use of information.
158
The United Nations system has been a pioneer in mounting international
cooperation for the collection, analysis and use of data for population
planning, health care, governance and public administration, job creation, wage
and income questions and social welfare needs; all designed to enable peoples
and Governments to make more informed decisions. The United Nations is seeking
to quantify human progress in a new way, providing a statistical picture of
human development that goes beyond measuring per capita gross national product.
The UNDP Human Development Report has initiated a rethinking of the parameters
by which development is measured.
159
Reliable statistics monitoring a nation's economic activity and
tracking economic, social and environmental change are essential to informed
decision-making and a necessary foundation for successful national development.
A new System of National Accounts, providing a framework within which countries
can gain a fresh perception of their economic statistics, and enhancing their
use of such data, was pioneered by the United Nations in cooperation with IMF,
the World Bank, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and
the Commission of the European Union.
160
New ways of collecting and disseminating environmental statistics and
indicators are being tested in a number of countries through a variety of United
Nations technical cooperation programmes. This undertaking is particularly
important as the gap in availability, quality, coherence and accessibility of
data among countries has been increasing. Information deficits continue to
impair the capacity of many economies to make informed decisions concerning the
environment and development.
161
Collection and analysis of information is a prerequisite not only for
informed discussion, but also for formulating acceptable and workable solutions.
Reliable, standardized information provides the common language in which all can
participate in the culture of development. If information is not reliable,
available and presented in a usable form, consensus will be elusive and
successful action highly unlikely.
162
In recent years, global international conferences have provided Member
States and others with opportunities to think together about the major choices
facing the world in the process of development, thus promoting a consensual
culture of development. Such global gatherings focus on strategic issues at the
highest level, enabling Member States to bring their national policies into line
with values and principles endorsed by the international community as a whole.
They give political direction and a new momentum to international efforts, while
providing inspiration and encouragement to States, to organizations and to
people.
163
UNCED brought an unprecedented commitment by world leaders to a shared
set of objectives for the future: Agenda 21,1/ the first international agreement
expressing a global consensus and a political commitment at the highest levels
to action on environment and economic progress, encompassed in a programme of
sustainable development. Since UNCED, environmental concerns have been firmly
placed in the mainstream of the culture of development. The Global Conference on
the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, held in Barbados
from 25 April to 6 May 1994, further defined the responsibilities of small
island States, and of the international community, in the pursuit of sustainable
development.
164
The World Conference on Human Rights was held at Vienna from 14 to 25
June 1993. In the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action,2/ the Conference
reaffirmed "the right to development, as established in the Declaration on the
Right to Development, as a universal and inalienable right and an integral part
of fundamental human rights". From the proclamation of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights in 1948 to its decision to create a United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights, the General Assembly has underscored its
expectation of conformity with agreed international principles of human rights.
165
In September 1994, the International Conference on Population and
Development, to be held at Cairo, will address the impact of demographic factors
on development and take up the challenge of creating a truly people-centred
development.
166
The World Summit for Social Development, to be held in 1995, the
Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations, could be a synthesizing event of
world significance. It is increasingly evident that a just society cannot accept
high levels of unemployment. A stable society cannot permit entire groups to be
excluded from the fruits of development. A secure society cannot exist without
social safety nets for its most disadvantaged members. A determined global
effort is needed to raise awareness and political commitment to effective
action, both national and international. The World Summit will provide an
indispensable opportunity to draw past achievements together as a coherent whole
and to set forth the new areas for concerted effort. It should elevate the
social development agenda to an equal level with economic growth by
strengthening the national and international institutional structures dealing
with social issues, facilitating coordination of their operations with those in
economic areas, and providing adequate supportive finance and other assistance.
167
The process will continue in 1995 at Beijing with the fourth in the
series of world conferences on women. The United Nations, largely through the
efforts of the Commission on the Status of Women, which was established in 1946,
has helped to develop the legal basis for the promotion of equal rights for
women and has been in the forefront of policy development, political commitment
and institutional development. A further milestone was the adoption, in 1979, of
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.
The Convention now has 132 States Parties who report regularly on the
implementation of its provisions. The Convention on the Rights of the Child and
the Vienna Declaration of the World Conference on Human Rights have also spelled
out institutional standards for women's rights. The vision for the next century
should build on these achievements and fully reflect a gender perspective.
168
In 1996, the Habitat II conference on human settlements, the "City
Summit" will discuss a programme of action designed to make urban areas, where
the majority of the world's population will live, safe, humane, healthy and
affordable.
169
In addition to Member States, international efforts to strengthen the
global culture of development must also encompass the broader international
community. The contribution of non-State actors to the culture of development
was clearly demonstrated during UNCED and the World Conference on Human Rights.
NGOs and concerned individuals claimed their rightful share in creating a
culture of development.
170
Within countries, elements of the civil society, including political
parties, trade unions, parliamentarians and NGOs, have become increasingly
important in creating and obtaining public support for development efforts on
the one hand, and tangible development assistance on the other. Non-official
groupings and movements now make up networks that help shape the direction of
development policy and deliver practical results. To be successful, political
consensus-building must embrace all.
171
By taking the initiative, highlighting issues of special concern and
advancing realistic solutions, actors at all levels can help to shape the
outcome of international efforts on the full range of global human concerns.
Little of lasting value is possible until people and Governments share a
political vision for progress, and have the political will to achieve it.
. 173
Forging multilateral agreement is the essence of international law,
whether embodied in the form of non-binding norms, internationally recognized
standards or binding obligations. By raising the political profile and public
visibility of issues, multilateral agreements can galvanize interest and become
a focal point for action. By creating a common framework for addressing
problems, multilateral agreements can enhance coordination and promote
coherence. By establishing common parameters and basic rules, multilateral
agreements can facilitate international interaction and exchange. By
establishing a common legal and political framework for action, multilateral
agreements can provide a firm basis from which to assess and monitor
international efforts. As practical mechanisms for forging consensus and
pursuing solutions, multilateral agreements are the key to achieving meaningful
international action in support of development.
174
The General Assembly has made numerous important contributions towards
the establishment of an international framework for development cooperation.
Assembly resolution 47/181 on an Agenda for Development refers in this context
to the Declaration on International Economic Cooperation, in particular the
Revitalization of Economic Growth and Development of the Developing Countries,
the International Development Strategy for the Fourth United Nations Development
Decade, the Cartagena Commitment, the United Nations New Agenda for the
Development of Africa in the 1990s, the Programme of Action for the Least
Developed Countries for the 1990s, and the various consensus agreements and
conventions, especially Agenda 21, adopted at UNCED.
175
Galvanizing interest and becoming a focal point for action is both the
aim and the impact of many multilateral agreements. The process of
consensus-building and codification raises the political profile of important
issues as States and constituencies seek to advance or defend their particular
interests, perspectives and agendas through the proposed agreement.
International debate and discussion frequently boost the public visibility of
the issues at stake, often generating new public awareness, interest and
involvement.
176
The treaties, conventions and standards adopted in connection with
UNCED exemplify the broad impact that the process of international
consensus-building and codification can have. Years of study and preparation,
the catalytic effect of a world gathering at the highest level and the drive to
codify specific actions and commitments, brought universal attention to the
urgent need to halt further deterioration of our environment, and to the
overriding importance of pursuing development that is environmentally sound and
sustainable. By putting environmental concerns on the agenda of States
worldwide, and by doing so in a manner that compelled States to contemplate
provisions and proposals, the process produced useful and much needed action,
expanded public awareness of environmental issues worldwide and led throughout
the world to valuable public policy appraisals on many of the topics of most
concern.
177
In addition to galvanizing interest and opinion, multilateral
agreements can also serve as a focal point for action. The United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea,3/ for example, now provides a mechanism for
addressing development questions related to all aspects of the use of the sea
and its resources. As new technologies and the hunger for new resources increase
the capacity of nations to exploit the ocean's resources, the Convention
provides a universal legal framework for rationally managing marine resources
and an agreed set of principles to guide consideration of the numerous issues
and challenges that will continue to arise. From navigation and overflights to
resource exploration and exploitation, conservation and pollution and fishing
and shipping, the Convention provides a focal point for international
deliberation and for action.
178
In the context of international cooperation within the framework of
multilateral conventions and understandings, international humanitarian efforts
have included action such as the establishment of "emergency relief corridors",
the growing use of United Nations peace-keepers for humanitarian missions,
preventing the slaughter of innocent civilians, investigating alleged violations
of international law and facilitating national reconciliation. By working
through the operation of international humanitarian norms, conventions and
standards to strengthen the practical foundations of international cooperation,
the international community has revealed the great potential of multilateral
arrangements to serve both as a catalyst for action and as mechanism for
achieving results.
179
Also integral to the role of international law in contributing to
development is its capacity to enhance coordination in the execution of policies
and promote coherence in their formulation and design. Directly and indirectly,
multilateral norms, standards and treaties help to advance these objectives in
concrete and meaningful ways.
180
Where individual action is insufficient to achieve satisfactory
results, or where cooperation with others could markedly improve the
effectiveness of such actions, coordination is clearly desirable. In regulating
international air transportation, for example, individual action would be
ineffective. Preventing further deterioration of the ozone layer, similarly, can
only be achieved if individual efforts and actions are coordinated. Multilateral
agreements designed to address these issues necessarily serve as essential
mechanisms for achieving coordination.
181
Promoting coherence and compatibility in international policy-making
is a closely related objective, and one that is equally essential. To the extent
that multilateral agreements foreclose certain policy options and promote
others, narrowing through compromise and consensus-building the scope for
disparate policy strategies, such agreements promote coherence and compatibility
in international policy-making. Rewarding certain practices and punishing
others, prohibiting certain actions and encouraging others, enshrining certain
principles and rejecting others, these are the mechanisms through which norms,
standards and treaties operate and through which greater policy coherence and
compatibility is established.
182
By promoting biodiversity, for example, multilateral environmental
agreements necessarily advance some national development options and policies
while limiting or eliminating others. By establishing particular pollution
emission standards, multilateral agreements necessarily advance a class of
policies designed to restrict certain types or levels of activity, and preclude
development or industrial strategies that would be incompatible with such
standards. The result in both cases is greater international coherence and
consistency in policy-making.
183
In a world where people increasingly interact beyond the confines of
national boundaries, it is especially desirable that there be processes and a
set of rules for governing private legal relationships of an international
nature. Establishing common procedures and agreeing on rules for resolving
conflicts of law is not only useful in facilitating commerce, but it also
contributes greatly to the building of peaceful and stable international
relations. Together, these efforts at cooperation facilitate interaction and
development and help to bring practical coherence to the multiplicity of
regulations generated by national systems of law.
184
Specific international conventions now operate with respect to an
increasingly wide range of private international interactions. In the legal
sphere, international conventions now cover issues such as the service of
process, evidence taking, the enforcement of judgements and international
conflicts of law. In the field of family law, important international agreements
have been negotiated. In the commercial sphere, international conventions
facilitate and expedite a wide range of activities from financial transactions
to international rules for the sale of goods.
185
The vital importance of common action is particularly evident in
international efforts to establish broad rules and principles to govern
interactions between nations. Multilateral agreements provide for overseeing
implementation of international labour standards, governing the management of
air routes, regulating the use of international telecommunications frequencies,
facilitating the international exchange of mail, monitoring world weather
patterns and promoting international interaction in a wide range of other
important areas.
186
Multilateral agreements also embody and reflect existing efforts to
fashion globally acceptable rules of trade. The United Nations, through the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), has helped
developing countries to obtain preferential treatment for their exports through
the establishment of the Generalized System of Preferences, and has promoted the
adoption of international commodity agreements and agreed principles for the
control of restrictive business practices. The General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) and the recently completed Uruguay Round of multilateral trade
negotiations, illustrate the impact that multilateral cooperation can have in
facilitating commerce and promoting development. It is estimated that global
trade will increase by as much as $50 billion as a result of the agreement
reached during the Uruguay Round. Throughout the international community, the
positive impact of this stimulus to employment, production and trade will be
significant.
187
The Uruguay Round is a vivid example of the positive impact that
multilateral agreements can have on development, through facilitating,
expediting and encouraging international trade and commerce. Among the many
other significant examples are the United Nations Convention on Transit Trade of
Land-locked States, the United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by
Sea, and the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale
of Goods.
188
Providing a basis from which to assess and monitor international
efforts, whether in support of development or in other fields, is also an
essential part of the importance of pursuing multilateral agreements. As a
result of international agreements, the International Labour Organization (ILO)
is able to monitor labour practices worldwide. The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change4/ provides for international review of national
policies affecting climate change and for international monitoring of greenhouse
emissions. In these instances, and in many others, multilateral agreements lay
the foundation and provide the basis for information gathering, for compliance
monitoring and for enforcement processes.
189
In the field of human rights, in particular, the importance of
multilateral agreements in establishing both a basis and a right for monitoring
and assessing the conduct of States is particularly evident. Not only do such
agreements provide a standard against which conduct can be measured, but they
also provide an agreed international basis for involvement in monitoring
compliance. Multilateral agreements thus enable the international community to
act upon the principle that humanity dignity is a concern that transcends
national boundaries and national distinctions.
190
Indeed, the notion that individual human rights can be protected by
the international community is one of the great practical and intellectual
achievements of international law. Through the mechanisms and procedures of
international law, international norms, standards, covenants and treaties now
provide a standard of accountability and a legal basis for international action
in support of human rights and humanitarian causes.
191
Agreeing on practical measures to implement a common approach to
problems is the essence of what the multilateral agreements seek to achieve. By
providing a framework for international cooperation, international law makes an
important and very tangible contribution to virtually all aspects of global
development. Through the coordination of disparate policies and efforts, the
promotion of goals and targets, the establishment of norms and standards and the
negotiation of treaties and conventions, international law provides both a
vehicle for cooperation and a mechanism for action.
192
As the leading proponent of international law, and as the most
important forum of international cooperation, the United Nations has a central
role to play in enhancing the scope and effectiveness of multilateral
cooperation, particularly as that cooperation is projected into international
norms, standards and precepts. In this role, the United Nations has a special
responsibility to promote and support the effective participation of all
countries concerned in the negotiation, implementation, review and governance of
international agreements or instruments.
194
In the developing world, and in countries in transition or in distress, the United Nations works to bring the benefits of development directly to people. These activities in the field take many forms. Working through its programmes and funds, as well as the Secretariat, the Organization helps to design development initiatives, supports development schemes and projects, provides technical training and capacity-building and assists Governments in the formulation of their overall development strategies.
195
Because Member States have primary responsibility for their own
development, United Nations development activities are carried out in close
collaboration with Governments and local communities. Local infrastructures are
an important part of those efforts. Many activities are also conducted through
NGOs and other non-State institutions. Other efforts are carried out by the
Organization directly.
196
Through its efforts in the field, the United Nations plays a much
needed and often unique role. In particular, the Organization's field activities
help to translate international decisions into local action and strategies, to
support useful non-commercial development initiatives, to advance development
efforts in sensitive sectors and to pioneer new areas and new types of
development assistance.
197
The enormous challenges that confront humanity require international
cooperation. But agreement is only the starting-point for action. The United
Nations field programmes provide a vital bridge between the formulation of broad
international agreements and the ability of countries to translate those
agreements into national action. Its global experience and perspective make the
Organization a vital source of practical support, as Member States address the
broad common issues that confront modern society. Without such assistance, many
Member States would lack the familiarity with issues or the immediate capacity
for action that can be required for progress. In the aftermath of UNCED, the
United Nations, when asked, has helped Member States to identify necessary
action, draft rules and policies and establish mechanisms to monitor and enforce
environmental objectives.
198
In many sectors that are vital to development prospects, only the
United Nations can demonstrate both the impartiality and the expertise necessary
to achieve results. Development policies affecting public administration,
governance and democratization are critical examples. Governments and societies
that recognize the need for change may hesitate to contemplate outside
assistance, for fear that that assistance may eventually open the way to outside
pressure or control. In many vital sectors of development, the United Nations
can draw on a long record of sensitivity and the impartiality and experience to
both serve and assist national development efforts. It is a service for which
many Member States will continue to rely upon the United Nations, and one that
the Organization must continue to be able to provide.
199
United Nations field activities have also played a valuable role in
pioneering new types and areas of development assistance. From a post-war
emphasis on the provision of long-term foreign experts and consultants,
resources are increasingly being directed to strengthening national capacity and
expertise. Having demonstrated the need for many of its earlier areas of focus,
and generated new sources of support, the United Nations must continuously
evaluate whether particular areas of endeavour continue to warrant its
full-scale involvement.
200
For the Organization itself, and for the international community as a
whole, the field activities of the United Nations and the Organization's active
development presence worldwide also have a broader significance. The United
Nations standing and moral authority in international affairs generally, and its
ability as an institution to grasp and apply itself to the human challenges of
development, are closely linked to the Organization's presence and efforts in
the field.
201
Through its fundamental commitment to working for human betterment,
the United Nations most firmly and securely establishes its credentials and its
credibility as an instrument for world peace. Worldwide, the United Nations flag
stands as a symbol of its commitment not only to peace, but also to progress.
The Organization's overall efforts are immeasurably strengthened by the
visibility of its commitment to and activities on behalf of development. This
moral commitment continues to define the work of the United Nations in the eyes
of those who most look to and depend upon the Organization for support. This
moral authority cannot be built upon abstractions, but only upon real service to
people.
202
Throughout the Organization, and in all of its activities, the
experience of staff who are working in the field to advance development adds an
invaluable source of balance, perspective and understanding. The present agenda
itself owes much to that broad store of practical human experience.
203
Through its field offices, theories are tested by concrete experience.
Problems are considered in a more practical context. Through its presence in the
field, the Organization not only learns about people but also learns directly
from the people it serves.
204
It is clear, however, that the United Nations operations for
development cannot engage or hope to solve every problem of development around
the world. Practical activities must be designed to achieve cumulative results
and to affect those particular problems for which even partial solutions will
enhance the prospects for durable progress. In short, the underlying concept of
operations for development is to go beyond the relief of distress to create
enduring foundations for progress.
205
Assessing the precise impact of particular strategies is rarely
possible in the short term. For the United Nations, however, development is a
long-term commitment. The impact of efforts on the ground has helped to achieve
significant progress. Emphasis on health services in the field helped, for
example, to ensure the eradication of smallpox, the widespread immunization of
children, and a dramatic cut in child death rates worldwide. Recognition of the
importance of a common cultural heritage helped inspire efforts to preserve
sites such as Abu Simbel, the Acropolis and Angkor Wat. Revelation of the
deteriorating condition of the planet has resulted in changed thinking and in
concrete efforts worldwide to reverse or repair the damage.
206
National capacity-building has been a key component of progress. In
many cases, United Nations development efforts in the field have markedly
increased the capacity of States to initiate and to sustain their development
efforts. Equally vital, the Organization's presence has sometimes prevented the
unravelling of development efforts, bridging critical gaps and compensating for
deteriorating infrastructures.
207
While hard to measure, a half-century of technical cooperation and
training has left an important legacy of increasing local expertise. This
contribution is of vital importance. Unless people have the capacity to carry
forward their own development, progress will remain uneven, and development will
not be secure.
208
By establishing an environment, a framework and often an umbrella for
development activities, the United Nations not only contributes directly to
development, but it also facilitates the development activities of many other
actors. The presence established by the Organization can help to create a
climate more receptive to development cooperation, and more encouraging for
other actors. In times of tension and instability, in particular, the
international presence that the United Nations symbolizes can be vital in
maintaining the momentum and the capacity to pursue development.
209
More generally, the priorities identified by the United Nations have
often provided a basis for other actors to become involved and to participate.
Agreements negotiated by the Organization have often provided a context within
which other actors could also be involved. For the Organization itself, and for
the international community in general, the United Nations presence in the field
is a vital asset in the service of development.
211
Each dimension of development is vital to the success of all others,
as well as to the core concept of human-centred progress. Successful development
cannot be achieved by pursuing any one dimension in isolation, nor can any one
dimension be excluded from the development process. Without peace, human
energies cannot be productively employed over time. Without economic growth,
there will be a lack of resources to apply to any problem. Without a healthy
environment, productivity will devour the basis of human progress. Without
societal justice, inequalities will consume the best efforts at positive change.
Without political participation in freedom, people will have no voice in shaping
their individual and common destiny.
212
Limited resources and domestic and foreign constraints mean that
choices must be made and priorities must be set. There are times when efforts to
achieve some aspects of development are postponed. In some countries, for
example, the short-term effects of economic reform may threaten political
stability.
213
The coordination of activities and assistance is essential to achieve
the maximum impact from development resources, and the true benefits of
prioritizing efforts. Coordination means a clear allocation of responsibilities,
an effective division of labour among the many actors involved in development,
and a commitment by each of those actors to work towards common and compatible
goals and objectives. Individual development actors must strive to make their
efforts complementary and contributory, rather than isolated or competing.
Coordination, so viewed, must guide the actions of each of these actors and the
interactions among them.
214
The agenda on which all national, regional and global participants
must cooperate includes international peace and security, economic progress, the
environment, social justice, democracy and good governance. All must be part of
a single endeavour. In the past, the international community has achieved
success through prioritizing its resources and coordinating its efforts; in
eradicating disease, in fighting famine, in working to protect the environment
and in seeking to limit the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The
prioritization of development efforts and the coordination of development actors
are required at all levels of activity. Worldwide issues, such as the struggle
against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) require coordination among States, international and regional
organizations, NGOs and agencies. In other cases, coordination must focus on a
specific region or segment of society. Donors need to coordinate among
themselves; recipients need to coordinate within their national systems.
215
Because development must be understood as a multifaceted, open-ended
undertaking, and because development efforts must respond to particular national
needs, priorities and circumstances, no single theory or set of priorities can
be applied to the development efforts of all countries at any one time. But
because development requires a perpetual balancing of priorities and emphasis
and the continual reassessment of needs and policies, the role and importance of
good government in promoting development cannot be overestimated. Because
development must be an international endeavour, governance is an issue whose
importance and impact may extend beyond particular national borders.
216
Governments must decide when to support difficult policies, and when
to resist powerful pressures, both foreign and domestic. Good government implies
the wisdom and the historical responsibility to know when to let market forces
act, when to let civil society take the lead, and when government should
intervene directly.
217
National development strategies must strive to ensure that development
programmes and projects are consistent and coherent. In view of the large number
of actors and agendas involved, within countries as well as internationally,
fragmentation and inconsistency are frequent problems. Domestically, the
challenge is to frame a coherent and comprehensive vision of development.
Internationally, the challenge is to marshal efforts and resources most
effectively in support of national development objectives.
218
As each society considers its development choices, the international
community must act wisely. Persuasion, not pressure, is likely to produce the
most determined effort and the most lasting results. As national Governments are
primarily responsible for development, the recognition of the complexity of
their task is the first responsibility of supportive international development
actors.
219
Successful coordination can only be achieved if there is a will to
work together. Mechanisms and structures can be developed to address areas of
duplication, overlap and inconsistency. But better mechanisms and structures
cannot compel or ensure cooperation, nor can they substitute for political will.
Unless donors are prepared to cooperate rather than compete, unless agencies are
willing to work as partners rather than rivals and unless organizations have the
courage to measure the success of their efforts by the progress that they
achieve, duplication, overlap and inconsistency will continue to hamper
development efforts.
220
Development priorities or models cannot be imposed by the
international community upon particular peoples. This is one of the lessons we
must take from past efforts. But the international community can and must
determine how best to maximize international development resources and achieve
greater consistency and coordination among international development actors.
221
The country strategy note offers an important new vehicle for
strengthened coordination. Through this approach, countries can work with the
United Nations to design development projects and prioritize the use of
development funds. The wide application of this technique to development
assistance could have a significant impact. At present, and in the absence of a
fully comprehensive approach covering all external aspects of development
cooperation, the prioritization and coordination of international development
efforts, both intergovernmental and non-governmental, remains an urgent need.
222
The resident coordinator system provides a valuable mechanism for
better integrating development assistance into the overall country programme
framework. Tapping into the capacity of the United Nations system as a whole,
the resident coordinator aims to ensure that the extensive operational
capacities of the Organization are totally supportive of national objectives and
fully utilized to build national capacity. The resident coordinator can help to
ensure that economic and social research and policy analysis, operational
activities, humanitarian assistance and the promotion of human rights, support
and reinforce each other at the national level. The resident coordinator system
must continue to be strengthened.
223
The United Nations, as an organization that is both universal in its
membership and comprehensive in its mandate, has an especially important role to
play both in facilitating the establishment of international development
priorities and in promoting coordination and cooperation among the many
development actors. In raising awareness, supplying information and providing a
forum for consensus building, in working to further cooperation through the
establishment of norms, standards and treaties, and, especially, as an actor on
the ground and in the field, the United Nations contributes to development
efforts.
224
While prioritization and coordination are necessary considerations for
all organizations and institutions, these requirements are especially vital to
the effective working of an organization that is as diverse in its composition
and as broad in its mandate as is the United Nations.
225
The Charter of the United Nations itself recognizes the special
importance of coordination within the United Nations system, assigning to the
Economic and Social Council, operating under the authority of the General
Assembly, the important and difficult task of coordinating the policies and
activities of the United Nations and its numerous specialized agencies. The
Council provides a ready and potentially powerful vehicle for helping to
prioritize the allocation of international resources for development.
Coordination must not only encompass Governments and intergovernmental
institutions, but it must also take into account the actions of the many
important non-governmental actors in development.
226
A number of United Nations bodies already benefit from the
participation of representatives of business, labour and consumer and other
communities. New ways are needed to involve such actors in deliberations at all
levels of the development effort.
227
Over the years, the absence of clear policy guidance from the General
Assembly, and the lack of effective policy coordination and control by the
Economic and Social Council has resulted in an overall lack of cohesion and
focus within the system. At all levels, among the central organs, the programmes
and the regional commissions, there has been a steady proliferation of
subsidiary bodies and an increasing lack of policy coherence. The revitalized
Council could make a significant contribution to establishing greater policy
coherence and coordination within the United Nations system as a whole.
228
The United Nations system constitutes an unparalleled body of
knowledge and expertise at the disposal of developing countries. Bringing the
strength of the system together at country level requires a new commitment to
coordination, impelled by unity of purpose. Through UNDP, its central funding
mechanism, the United Nations has a unique global network of country offices
which provide an infrastructure for the Organization's operational activities
worldwide and enable it to respond f